Formulations including nanoparticles

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to a formulation comprising a medium, one or more stabilizers, and one or more particles comprising nanoparticles included within a host material. In certain embodiments, a stabilizer comprises a HALS stabilizer. In certain embodiments, a stabilizer comprises a UVA stabilizer. In certain embodiments, the formulation includes a HALS stabilizer and a UVA stabilizer. In certain embodiments, nanoparticles have light-emissive properties. Other embodiments relate to a powder obtainable from a formulation of the invention, a composition including a powder of the invention, a coating comprising a formulation of the invention, and products and applications including a particle of the invention. In preferred embodiments, a nanoparticle comprises a semiconductor nanocrystal. In certain embodiments, a host material comprises a polymer. In certain embodiments, a host material comprises an inorganic material. A raw batch formulation and particle obtainable therefrom is also disclosed.

This application is a continuation of commonly owned International Application No. PCT/US2010/048291 filed 9 Sep. 2010, which was published in the English language as PCT Publication No. WO 2011/031876 A1 on 17 Mar. 2011, which International Application claims priority to U.S. Application No. 61/240,937 filed 9 Sep. 2009. Each of the foregoing is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. 2004*H838109*000 awarded by the Central Intelligence Agency. The Government has certain rights in the invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the technical field of nanotechnology.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

More particularly, the present invention relates to a formulation comprising a medium, one or more stabilizers, and one or more particles comprising nanoparticles included within a host material. The present invention also relates to powders, compositions, films, and coatings including or prepared from a formulation taught herein, and uses of the foregoing.

In accordance with one aspect of the present invention there is provided a formulation comprising a medium, one or more stabilizers, and one or more particles comprising nanoparticles included within a host material.

In certain embodiments, a stabilizer comprises a hindered amine light stabilizer (HALS).

In certain embodiments, a stabilizer comprises a UV Absorber (UVA) stabilizer.

In certain embodiments, the formulation includes a HALS stabilizer and a UVA stabilizer.

The concentration of stabilizer in the formulation can be varied.

A formulation can include from about 0.1 to about 5, and preferably about 0.1 to about 2, weight percent of a stabilizer.

A formulation can include more than one stabilizer. In such case, each stabilizer can be included in an amount from about 0.1 to about 5, and preferably about 0.1 to about 2 weight percent.

For example, a formulation can include from about 0.1 to about 5, and preferably about 0.1 to about 2, weight percent HALS stabilizer and/or from about 0.1 to about 5, and preferably about 0.1 to about 2, weight percent UVA stabilizer.

Other concentrations of stabilizers may be determined to be useful or desirable.

In certain embodiments, the particles have at least one dimension in the range from about 0.01 μm to about 100 μm. In certain embodiments, the particle has at least one dimension in the range from about 0.01 μm to about 50 μm.

The concentration of nanoparticles in the host material or particle can be varied.

In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles can be included in the host material in an amount of at least about 0.001 weight percent. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles can be included in the host material in an amount in a range from about 0.001 to about 25 weight percent. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles can be included in the host material in an amount in a range from about 0.001 to about 20 weight percent. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles can be included in the host material in an amount in a range from about 0.001 to about 15 weight percent. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles can be included in the host material in an amount in a range from about 0.001 to about 10 weight percent. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles can be included in the host material in an amount in a range from about 0.001 to about 5 weight percent. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles can be included in the host material in an amount in a range from about 0.001 to about 2.5 weight percent. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles can be included in the host material in an amount in a range from about 0.01 to about 2 weight percent.

Other concentrations of nanoparticles in the host material may be determined to be useful or desirable.

The weight percent of the nanoparticles included in a particle is determined based on the weight of the nanoparticles without regard to any ligand(s) that may be attached thereto.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises a polymer.

In certain preferred embodiments, the host material comprises a polyacrylate.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises a polymethacrylate.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises a polylaurylmethacrylate.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises a monomer.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises a resin.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises one or more monomers, polymers, and/or resins.

Examples of polymers and resins include, for example and without limitation, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyethylene oxide, polysiloxane, polyphenylene, polythiophene, poly(phenylene-vinylene), polysilane, polyethylene terephthalate and poly(phenylene-ethynylene), polymethylmethacrylate, polylaurylmethacrylate, polycarbonate, epoxy, and other epoxies. Other polymers and resins can be readily ascertained by one of ordinary skill in the relevant art.

Examples of monomers include, for example and without limitation, monomer precursors for the above listed polymer examples and other monomer examples described herein.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises a mixture including one or more monomers, polymers, and/or resins.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises an inorganic material, such as metal oxide (including, but not limited to, silica or titania.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises a solid wax.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises a semi-solid wax.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises a mixture of waxes.

In certain embodiments, the wax is non-biodegradable.

In certain embodiments, the host material is optically transparent.

In certain embodiments, the host material is optically transparent to excitation light used to optically excite the nanoparticles.

In certain embodiments, the host material is optically transparent to light emitted from the light-emissive nanoparticles.

In certain embodiments, the host material is optically transparent to both the excitation light and light emitted from the light-emissive nanoparticles.

In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles have light-emissive properties. Nanoparticles with light-emissive properties are discussed below.

In certain embodiments, at least a portion of the nanoparticles include a core comprising a first semiconductor material and a shell disposed over at least a portion of an outer surface of the core, the shell comprising a second semiconductor material.

In certain embodiments, at least a portion of the nanoparticles includes one or more ligands attached to an outer surface thereof.

In certain embodiments wherein at least a portion of the nanoparticles include ligands attached to an outer surface thereof, the ligands are selected to be chemically compatible with the host material.

In certain preferred embodiments, the nanoparticles comprise semiconductor nanocrystals. (Semiconductor nanocrystals are also referred to herein as quantum dots.)

In certain embodiments, the semiconductor nanocrystals include a core comprising a first semiconductor nanocrystalline material and a shell disposed over at least a portion of an outer surface of the core, the shell comprising a second semiconductor nanocrystalline material. In certain embodiments, at least a portion of the semiconductor nanocrystals includes one or more ligands attached to an outer surface thereof.

In certain embodiments, the formulation further includes one or more surfactants.

In certain embodiments, the formulation further includes one or more additives.

In certain embodiments, the one or more additives can include a colorant, a scatterer, a binder, a surfactant, a UV absorber, and/or a mixture of one or more thereof.

Additives and amounts thereof can be selected based on the intended end-use application. Such additives and amounts can be readily ascertained by one of ordinary skill in the relevant art.

In certain embodiments, the medium can comprise a mixture of one or more mediums.

In certain preferred embodiments, the medium comprises a liquid medium.

In certain embodiments, the medium comprises water.

In certain embodiment, the medium comprises a mixture that includes water.

In certain embodiments, the medium comprises a non-aqueous liquid.

In certain embodiments, the medium comprises a monomer, polymer, resin, film forming composition, and/or mixtures of the foregoing.

In certain embodiments, two or more populations of particles are included in the formulation, wherein at least one population of particles includes nanoparticles that emit light at a wavelength that is distinct from that emitted by nanoparticles included in another population of particles.

In certain embodiments, the particles are present in the formulation in an amount of at least about 0.1 weight percent based on the weight of the medium. In certain embodiments, the particles are present in the formulation in an amount of at least about 0.1 to about 75 weight percent based on the weight of the medium. In certain embodiments, the particles are present in the formulation in an amount of at least about 0.1 to about 50 weight percent based on the weight of the medium. In certain embodiments, the particles are present in the formulation in an amount of at least about 0.1 to about 25 weight percent based on the weight of the medium. In certain embodiments, the particles are present in the formulation in an amount of at least about 0.1 to about 10 weight percent based on the weight of the medium.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a powder obtainable from a formulation in accordance with the invention.

In certain embodiments, the powder has a predetermined particle size distribution. A predetermined particles size distribution can be achieved by screening or by other techniques readily ascertainable by one of ordinary skill in the relevant art.

In certain embodiments, the particle size distribution is selected based on the intended end-use application. Such particle size distribution can be readily ascertained by one of ordinary skill in the relevant art.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention there is provided a film prepared from a formulation in accordance with the invention.

In certain embodiments, the film can comprise a monomer, polymer, resin, film forming composition, and/or mixtures of the foregoing.

In certain embodiments, a film further includes one or more additives. In certain embodiments, the one or more additives can include a colorant, a scatterer, a binder, a surfactant, a UV absorber, and/or a mixture of one or more thereof.

Additives and amounts thereof can be selected based on the intended end-use application. Such additives and amounts can be readily ascertained by one of ordinary skill in the relevant art.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention there is provided a coating comprising a formulation in accordance with the invention.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a composition comprising a powder in accordance with the invention dispersed in a second host material.

In certain embodiments, the second host material comprises a polymer. In certain embodiments, the second host material comprises a monomer. In certain embodiments, the second host material comprises a resin.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a raw batch formulation useful for making a particle. The raw batch formulation comprises from about 0.001 to about 25 weight percent quantum dots, photoinitiator, up to about 25 weight percent cross-linking agent, and one or more monomers.

Quantum dots, photoinitiators, monomers are described elsewhere herein.

The photoinitiator can be included in at least an amount effective to enable polymerization.

Cross-linking agents are a well know class of reagent. Selection of a cross-linking agent for inclusion in a raw batch formulation can be readily made by one or ordinary skill in the relevant art. Such selection may be influenced by the composition of other materials included therein.

The raw batch formulation can further include a surfactant.

Preferably, the raw batch formulation further includes a liquid medium and from about 0.01 to about 5 weight percent surfactant based on the weight of the liquid medium.

Other concentrations of the various components in the raw batch formulation may also be determined to be useful or desirable.

Other additives, e.g., but not limited to, those described herein, can further optionally be included.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a particle obtainable from the raw batch formulation described herein.

The foregoing, and other aspects and embodiments described herein and contemplated by this disclosure all constitute embodiments of the present invention.

It should be appreciated by those persons having ordinary skill in the art(s) to which the present invention relates that any of the features described herein in respect of any particular aspect and/or embodiment of the present invention can be combined with one or more of any of the other features of any other aspects and/or embodiments of the present invention described herein, with modifications as appropriate to ensure compatibility of the combinations. Such combinations are considered to be part of the present invention contemplated by this disclosure.

It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention as claimed. Other embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the specification and practice of the invention disclosed herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In the drawings,

FIG. 1 depicts material described in Example 2.

FIG. 2 depicts material described in Example 2.

FIG. 3 depicts spectra to illustrate a method for measuring quantum efficiency.

For a better understanding to the present invention, together with other advantages and capabilities thereof, reference is made to the following disclosure and appended claims in connection with the above-described drawings.

DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a formulation comprising a medium, one or more stabilizers, and one or more particles comprising nanoparticles included within a host material. The present invention also relates to powders, compositions, films, and coatings including or prepared from a formulation taught herein, uses of the foregoing, and methods and a raw batch formulation and particle obtainable therefrom.

In accordance with one aspect of the present invention there is provided a formulation comprising a medium, one or more stabilizers, and one or more particles comprising nanoparticles included within a host material.

In certain embodiments, a stabilizer comprises a HALS stabilizer.

A HALS stabilizer can comprise a mixture of two or more HALS stabilizers.

HALS stabilizers are a known category of light stabilizers. Selection of a HALS stabilizer for inclusion in a formulation can be readily made by one or ordinary skill in the relevant art. Such selection may be influenced by the composition of other materials included in the formulation.

In certain embodiments, a stabilizer comprises a UVA stabilizer.

A UVA stabilizer can comprise a mixture of two or more UVA stabilizers.

UVA stabilizers are a known category of light stabilizers. Selection of a UVA stabilizer for inclusion in a formulation can be readily made by one or ordinary skill in the relevant art. Such selection may be influenced by the composition of other materials included in the formulation.

In certain embodiments, the formulation includes a HALS stabilizer and a UVA stabilizer.

In certain embodiments, one or more of the particles comprising nanoparticles are included in a host material.

In certain embodiments, a particle can further include coating over at least a portion of the outer surface of the particle. In certain of such embodiments, the coating covers all or substantially all of the outer surface of the particle. In certain embodiments, the coating comprises a resin with low oxygen permeability, Examples of such resins include, but are not limited to, a polyvinyl alcohol compound and a polyvinylidene dichloride compound. Such resins can optionally include one or more substituent groups, which can be the same or different. In certain embodiments, the coating comprises a polyvinyl alcohol compound.

The polyvinyl alcohol compound can optionally include one or more substituent groups, which can be the same or different.

In certain embodiments, the polyvinyl alcohol compound comprises polyvinyl alcohol (PVA).

The polyvinyl alcohol can optionally include one or more substituent groups, which can be the same or different.

In certain embodiments, the polyvinyl alcohol compound comprises poly(ethylenevinyl) alcohol (EVA).

The poly(ethylenevinyl) alcohol can optionally include one or more substituent groups, which can be the same or different.

In certain embodiments, the coating comprises polyvinylidene dichloride.

The polyvinylidene dichloride can optionally include one or more substituent groups, which can be the same or different.

The coating can represent at least 0.1 weight percent of the coated particle. For example, the coating can represent from about 0.1 to about 10 weight percent of the coated particle, from about 0.1 to about 5 weight percent of the coated particle, from about 0.1 to about 3.5 weight percent of the coated particle, from about 0.1 to about 2.5 weight percent of the coated particle. Other coating concentrations outside these ranges may also be determined to be useful or desirable.

The coating can have a thickness of at least 0.1 micron. For example, the coating can have a thickness in a range from about 0.1 to about 10 microns, in a range from about 0.1 to about 5 microns.

Other coating thicknesses outside these ranges may also be determined to be useful or desirable.

In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles can have light-emissive properties. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles comprise semiconductor nanocrystals. Nanoparticles and semiconductor nanocrystals are discussed further below.

In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles can include one or more ligands attached to the outer surface thereof.

Preferably the host material comprises a solid material. In certain embodiments, the host material can be selected to provide environmental stability to the nanoparticles. For example, a preferred host material can have characteristics which protect the nanoparticles included therein from environmental factors that can adversely affect the nanoparticles. Examples of such factors include, without limitation, oxygen, water, etc.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises a polymer.

In certain preferred embodiments, the host material comprises a polyacrylate.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises a polymethacrylate.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises a polylaurylmethacrylate.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises a monomer.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises a resin.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises one or more monomers, polymers, and/or resins.

Examples of polymers and resins include, for example and without limitation, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyethylene oxide, polysiloxane, polyphenylene, polythiophene, poly(phenylene-vinylene), polysilane, polyethylene terephthalate and poly(phenylene-ethynylene), polymethylmethacrylate, polylaurylmethacrylate, polycarbonate, epoxy, and other epoxies.

Other polymers and resins can be readily ascertained by one of ordinary skill in the relevant art.

Examples of monomers include, for example and without limitation, monomer precursors for the above listed polymer examples and other monomer examples described herein.

Additional examples of monomers include, but are not limited to, allyl methacrylate, benzyl methylacrylate, 1,3-butanediol dimethacrylate, 1,4-butanediol dimethacrylate, butyl acrylate, n-butyl methacrylate, ethyl methacrylate, 2-ethyl hexyl acrylate, 1,6-hexanediol dimethacrylate, 4-hydroxybutyl acrylate, hydroxyethyl acrylate, 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate, 2-hydroxypropyl acrylate, isobutyl methacrylate, lauryl methacrylate, methacrylic acid, methyl acrylate, 2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5-octafluoropentyl acrylate, pentaerythritol triacrylate, 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl 2-methylacrylate, trimethylolpropane triacrylate, acrylamide n,n,-methylene-bisacryl-amide phenyl acrylate, and divinyl benzene.

For those monomers that are photo-polymerizable, a photoinitiator species can be included with the monomer to enable the polymerization process. (A photoiniator species may also be referred to herein as a photosensitizer.) Effectively any chemical that can produce free-radicals in a fluidic monomer as a result of illumination absorption can be employed as the photoinitiator species. There are in general two classes of photoinitiators. In the first class, the chemical undergoes unimolecular bond cleavage to yield free radicals. Examples of such photoinitiators include benzoin ethers, benzil ketals, a-dialkoxy-acetophenones, a-amino-alkylphenones, and acylphosphine oxides. the second class of photoinitiators is characterized by a bimolecular reaction where the photoinitiator reacts with a coinitiator to form free radicals. Examples of such are benzophenones/amines, thioxanthones/amines, and titanocenes (vis light).

A non-exhaustive listing of examples of photoinitiators that may be useful with a photo-polymerizable monomer for particle preparation include the following from CIBA: IRGACURE 184 (1-hydroxy-cyclohexyl-phenyl-ketone), DAROCUR 1173 (2-hydroxy-2-methyl-1-phenyl-1-propanone), IRGACURE 2959 (2-hydroxy-1-[4-(2-hydroxyethoxy)phenyl]-2-methyl-1-propanone), DAROCUR MBF (methylbenzoylformate), IRGACURE 754 (oxy-phenyl-acetic acid 2-[2 oxo-2 phenyl-acetoxy-ethoxy]-ethyl ester and oxy-phenyl-acetic 2-[2-hydroxy-ethoxy]-ethyl ester), IRGACURE 651 Alpha, (alpha-dimethoxy-alpha-phenylacetophenone), IRGACURE 369 (2-benzyl-2-(dimethylamino)-1-[4-(4-morpholinyl)phenyl]-1-butanone), IRGACURE 907 (2-methyl-1-[4-(methylthio)phenyl]-2-(4-morpholinyl)-1-propanone), DAROCUR TPO (diphenyl(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl)phosphine oxide), IRGACURE 819 (phosphine oxide, phenyl bis(BAPO)(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl)), IRGACURE 784 (bis(eta 5-2,4-cyclopentadien-1-yl)Bis[2,6-difluoro-3-(1H-pyrrol-1-yl)phenyl]titanium), IRGACURE 250 (iodonium, (4-methylphenyl)[4-(2-methylpropyl)phenyl]-hexafluorophosphate(1-)).

When used, a photoinitiator is included in at least an amount effective to enable the polymerization process.

In certain embodiments, up to about 5 weight percent photoinitiator is included in the mixture to be polymerized. In certain embodiments, up to about 4 percent photoinitiator is included in the mixture to be polymerized. In certain embodiments, up to about 3 percent photoinitiator is included in the mixture to be polymerized. In certain embodiments, up to about 2 percent photoinitiator is included in the mixture to be polymerized. In certain embodiments, about 1 weight percent photoinitiator can be preferred.

Other amounts of photoiniator outside the above ranges may be determined to be useful or desirable.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises a mixture including one or more monomers, polymers, and/or resins.

In certain embodiments, the host material can comprise a mixture including one or more monomers, polymers, and/or resins.

In certain embodiments, the host material comprises an inorganic material, such as metal oxide (including, but not limited to, silica or titania.

Examples of host materials for inclusion in particles also include hydrocarbon wax, which is available in different molecular weight versions. Low molecular weight versions are called paraffin wax. Fischer-Tropsch wax is an example of a medium molecular weight version. Polyethylene wax is an example of a high molecular weight version. Melting points can range from 50° C. to 130° C. Straight chain hydrocarbon waxes will be very compatible with nanoparticles including one or more ligands comprising a straight chain alkane ligand. Above certain molecular weight, these waxes are insoluble in most solvents. Lower molecular weight chains are preferred host materials for nanoparticles comprising semiconductor nanocrystals. (Higher molecular weight chains can be more brittle which can make particle size reduction easier.) The index of refraction of these waxes generally is in a range from 1.51 to 1.54, similar to the 1.49 value for PMMA. It is uncolored to milky white. While polyethylene wax is less than an optimum O₂ barrier, in certain uses it may be preferred because it is not biodegradable and it may be resistant to the liquids and/or components included in the formulation.

Other waxes can be used as host materials, and there are many methods useful to obtain the desired particle size.

In certain embodiments, solid waxes are used as host materials. In certain embodiments, semi-solid waxes are used as host materials.

In certain embodiments, the host material can be optically transparent.

In certain embodiments of the present invention, a particle comprises a host material including nanoparticles dispersed therein. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles are dispersed throughout the host material. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles are substantially uniformly dispersed throughout the host material. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles are dispersed throughout the particle. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles are substantially uniformly dispersed throughout the particle.

In certain embodiments, a particle can have a size in a range from about 0.01 to about 100 microns. In certain embodiments, a particle can have a size in a range from about 0.01 to about 80 microns. In certain embodiments, a particle can have a size in a range from about 0.01 to about 60 microns. In certain embodiments, a particle can have a size in a range from about 0.01 to about 50 microns. In certain embodiments, a particle can have a size in a range from about 0.01 to about 40 microns. In certain embodiments, a particle can have a size in a range from about 0.01 to about 20 microns. In certain embodiments, a particle can have a size in a range from about 0.01 to about 10 microns. In certain embodiments, a particle can have a size in a range from about 0.5 to about 50 microns. In certain embodiments, a particle can have a size in a range from about 0.5 to about 30 microns. In certain embodiments, a particle can have a size in a range from about 0.5 to about 20 microns. Particles in accordance with certain embodiments of the invention that are micron sized can facilitate inclusion of nanoparticles in formulations, other compositions, processes, and applications, while avoiding the handling of nano-sized materials.

The inclusion in the formulation of nanoparticles included within particles comprising a host material advantageously protects the quantum dots from direct contact with the one or more stabilizers included in the formulation. This can be beneficial for performance of nanoparticles with light-emissive properties.

The concentration of the nanoparticles in the host material or particle can be varied. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles can be included in the host material in an amount of at least about 0.001 weight percent. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles can be included in the host material in an amount in a range from about 0.001 to about 25 weight percent. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles can be included in the host material in an amount in a range from about 1 to about 10 weight percent. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles can be included in the host material in an amount in a range from about 0.001 to about 5 weight percent. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles can be included in the host material in an amount in a range from about 0.001 to about 2.5 weight percent. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles can be included in the host material in an amount in a range from about 0.01 to about 2 weight percent.

Other concentrations of nanoparticles in the host material may be determined to be useful or desirable.

In certain embodiments, a formulation can optionally include one or more additives, including, but not limited to, colorants, scatterers, binders, surfactants, defoaming agents, UV absorbers, etc., and/or mixtures of one or more of the foregoing.

Additives and amounts thereof can be selected based on the intended end-use application. Such additives and amounts can be readily ascertained by one of ordinary skill in the relevant art.

In certain embodiments, two or more populations of particles are included in the formulation, wherein at least one population of particles includes nanoparticles that emit light at a wavelength that is distinct from that emitted by nanoparticles included in another population of particles.

In certain embodiments, the particles are present in the formulation in an amount of at least about 0.1 weight percent based on the weight of the medium. In certain embodiments, the particles are present in the formulation in an amount of at least about 0.1 to about 75 weight percent based on the weight of the medium. In certain embodiments, the particles are present in the formulation in an amount of at least about 0.1 to about 50 weight percent based on the weight of the medium. In certain embodiments, the particles are present in the formulation in an amount of at least about 0.1 to about 25 weight percent based on the weight of the medium. In certain embodiments, the particles are present in the formulation in an amount of at least about 0.1 to about 10 weight percent based on the weight of the medium.

In certain embodiments of a formulation including a liquid, the host material preferably has a refractive index that matches, or is approximately the same as, that of the formulation after the liquid is removed.

In certain embodiments, the host matrix included in the particles is insoluble in the liquid and other components of the formulation. In certain embodiments, the host matrix included in the particles is not chemically reactive with any liquid and/or other components of the formulation.

In certain embodiments wherein at least a portion of the nanoparticles includes one or more ligands attached to an outer surface thereof, the host material is selected to be chemically compatible with the ligands.

Encapsulating nanoparticles in a host material can advantageously simplify the processing and/or use of the nanoparticles, e.g., in other formulations, compositions, and other products and end-use applications. For example, preparation of a formulation involving nanoparticles having different compositions can be simplified when the nanoparticles are encapsulated in a host material before inclusion in the formulation. This is particularly the case in embodiments wherein each of the different composition nanoparticles is included in a host material that is the same for each of the different nanoparticles.

In certain embodiments, a formulation of the invention can be used in a paint.

In certain embodiments, a formulation of the invention can be used in an ink.

In accordance with another embodiment of the invention, there is provided a powder obtainable from a formulation in accordance with the present invention.

In certain embodiments, the powder has a predetermined particle size distribution.

A predetermined particles size distribution can be achieved by screening or by other techniques readily ascertainable by one of ordinary skill in the relevant art.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention there is provided a film prepared from a formulation in accordance with the invention.

In certain embodiments, the film can comprise a monomer, polymer, resin, film forming composition, and/or mixtures of the foregoing.

In certain embodiments, a film further includes one or more additives. In certain embodiments, the one or more additives can include a colorant, a scatterer, a binder, a surfactant, a UV absorber, and/or a mixture of one or more thereof.

Additives and amounts thereof can be selected based on the intended end-use application. Such additives and amounts can be readily ascertained by one of ordinary skill in the relevant art.

In accordance with another embodiment of the invention, there is provided a coating comprising a formulation of the invention.

In certain embodiments, the coating further comprises a one or more monomers, polymers, resins, and/or other film forming compositions.

In certain embodiments, a coating can optionally further include one or more additives, including, but not limited to, colorants, scatterers, binders, surfactants, etc., and/or mixtures of one or more of the foregoing.

Additives and amounts thereof can be selected based on the intended end-use application. Such additives and amounts can be readily ascertained by one of ordinary skill in the relevant art.

Examples of polymers and resins include, for example and without limitation, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyethylene oxide, polysiloxane, polyphenylene, polythiophene, poly(phenylene-vinylene), polysilane, polyethylene terephthalate poly(phenylene-ethynylene), polymethylmethacrylate, polylaurylmethacrylate, polycarbonate, epoxy, and other epoxies.

Other polymers and resins suitable for the coating end-use application can further be used.

Examples of monomers include, for example and without limitation, monomer precursors for the above listed polymer examples and other monomer examples described herein.

In certain embodiments, a coating can be prepared by applying a formulation in accordance with an embodiment of the invention that includes a liquid to a surface and removing the liquid. In certain embodiments, the liquid can be removed from the applied formulation by evaporation, heating, or other suitable techniques.

In certain embodiments, the formulation can be applied to the surface by screen-printing, contact printing, inkjet printing, gravure coating, roll coating, brush, spray, or other suitable techniques.

In certain embodiments, the coating can be patterned or unpatterned.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a composition comprising a powder in accordance with the invention dispersed in a second host material.

In certain embodiments, the second host material comprises a polymer. In certain embodiments, the second host material comprises a monomer. In certain embodiments, the second host material comprises a resin.

In certain embodiments, the second host material comprises one or more monomers, polymers, and/or resins.

Examples of second host materials include, but are not limited to, examples of other host materials provided herein.

Other polymers, monomers, and resins suitable for the composition's end-use application can further be used.

In certain embodiments, a coating can optionally further include one or more additives, including, but not limited to, colorants, scatterers, binders, surfactants, etc., and/or mixtures of one or more of the foregoing.

Additives and amounts thereof can be selected based on the intended end-use application. Such additives and amounts can be readily ascertained by one of ordinary skill in the relevant art.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a raw batch formulation useful for making a particle. The raw batch formulation comprises from about 0.001 to about 25 weight percent quantum dots, photoinitiator, up to about 25 weight percent cross-linking agent, and one or more monomers.

Quantum dots, photoinitiators, monomers are described elsewhere herein.

The photoinitiator can be included in at least an amount effective to enable polymerization.

In certain embodiments, two or more different types of quantum dots with different emissive properties can be included in the raw batch formulation.

Cross-linking agents are a well know class of reagent. Selection of a cross-linking agent for inclusion in a raw batch formulation can be readily made by one or ordinary skill in the relevant art. Such selection may be influenced by the composition of other materials included therein.

The raw batch formulation can further include a surfactant.

Preferably, the raw batch formulation further includes a liquid medium and from about 0.01 to about 5 weight percent surfactant based on the weight of the liquid medium.

Surfactants are a well know class of reagent. Selection of a surfactant for inclusion in a raw batch formulation can be readily made by one or ordinary skill in the relevant art. Such selection may be influenced by the composition of other materials included therein.

Other concentrations of the various components in the raw batch formulation may also be determined to be useful or desirable.

Other additives, e.g., but not limited to, those described herein, can further optionally be included.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a particle obtainable from the raw batch formulation described herein.

A particle can be obtained, for example, by dispersing quantum dots in a mixture of one or more monomers and a photoinitiator. Concentrations of quantum dots in the monomer(s) and the amount of photoiniator can be as described herein. The mixture can further include a cross-linker. (A cross-linker can be included in an amount up to about 25 percent by weight; in certain embodiments cross-linker can be included in an amount from about 15-20 weight percent.) The mixture further can include a surfactant (e.g., from about 0.01 to about 5 weight percent based on the water or other solvent to be used). The mixture can then be dispersed in water and/or other polar organic solvent with high shear, e.g., using a rotor-stator, disperser to generate microspheres. The microspheres are then quickly photo-polymerized (e.g., under UV) to generate solid, cross-linked microspheres containing the quantum dots. The microspheres can then be isolated.

In one example, quantum dots are dispersed in a mixture of acrylic monomers and cross-linking agents with a photosensitizer (also referred to herein as a photoinitiator) and a surfactant.

A particle in accordance with the invention can be dispersed in a formulation appropriate for the desired end-use application thereof.

For example, for a paint, a plurality of particles in accordance with the invention can be dispersed in an acrylic base coat including stabilizers as disclosed herein to make a paint having improved environmental stability.

Various alcohols, monomers, polymers, resins, and other compounds or materials mentioned herein that include an organic portion can optionally be substituted, e.g., include one or more substituent groups, which can be the same or different.

Nonlimiting examples of substituent groups include organic groups and inorganic groups. Examples of organic groups include, but are not limited to, an aliphatic group, a cyclic organic group, or an organic compound having an aliphatic portion and a cyclic portion. An organic group may further be substituted or unsubstituted, branched or unbranched. Aliphatic groups include, for example, groups derived from alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and carbohydrates. Cyclic organic groups include, but are not limited to, alicyclic hydrocarbon groups (for example, cycloalkyls, cycloalkenyls), heterocyclic hydrocarbon groups (for example, pyrrolidinyl, pyrrolinyl, piperidinyl, morpholinyl, and the like), aryl groups (for example, phenyl, naphthyl, anthracenyl, and the like), and heteroaryl groups (imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, pyridinyl, thienyl, thiazolyl, furyl, indolyl, and the like). As the steric hindrance of a substituted organic group increases, the number of organic groups may be diminished.

When the organic group is substituted, it may contain any functional group. Examples include, but are not limited to, OR, COR, COOR, OCOR, COONa, COOK, COO⁻NR₄ ⁺, halogen, CN, NR₂, SO₃H, SO₃Na, SO₃K, SO₃ ⁻NR₄ ⁺, NR(COR), CONR₂, NO₂, PO₃H₂, PO₃HNa, PO₃Na₂, N═NR, NR₃ ⁺X⁻, and PR₃ ⁺X⁻. R can independently be hydrogen, C₁-C.₂₀ alkyl (branched or unbranched) or aryl. The integer n can range, e.g., from 1-8 and preferably from 2-4. The anion X⁻ can be a halide or an anion that can be derived from a mineral or organic acid.

Another example set of organic groups which may be substituents are organic groups substituted with an ionic or an ionizable group as a functional group. An ionizable group is one which is capable of forming an ionic group in the medium or host material of use. The ionic group may be an anionic group or a cationic group and the ionizable group may form an anion or a cation. Ionizable functional groups forming anions include, for example, acidic groups or salts of acidic groups. The organic groups, therefore, can include, e.g., groups derived from organic acids.

Other substituent groups may also be determined to be useful or desirable.

Light-emissive nanoparticles can confine electrons and holes and have a photoluminescent property to absorb light and re-emit different wavelength light. Color characteristics of emitted light from light-emissive nanoparticles depend on the size and chemical composition of the nanoparticles.

In various embodiments and aspects of the inventions described herein, a particle can comprise light-emissive nanoparticles that include at least one type of light-emissive nanoparticle with respect to chemical composition and size. The type(s) of light-emissive nanoparticles included in various aspects or embodiments of the inventions contemplated by this disclosure are determined by the wavelength of light to be converted and the wavelengths of the desired light output. In certain embodiments, two or more types of light-emissive nanoparticles can be used that emit light at the same or different wavelengths.

In certain embodiments, light-emissive nanoparticles preferably include a shell and/or a ligand on a surface thereof. A shell and/or ligand can serve to passivate non-radiative defect sites, and to prevent agglomeration or aggregation to overcome the Van der Waals binding force between the nanoparticles. In certain embodiments, the ligand preferably comprises a material having an affinity for the host material in which light-emissive nanoparticles are included. As discussed herein, in certain embodiments, a shell comprises an inorganic shell. Ligands and shells are further discussed below.

In certain embodiments, a particle of the invention can include nanoparticles selected to emit at a predetermined wavelength or wavelength band for the desired color upon absorption of excitation light.

In certain embodiments, a particle of the invention can include a mixture of two or more nanoparticles, each of which is selected to emit at a predetermined wavelength or wavelength band which is distinct from that of the other(s) when excited by optical energy from one or more light sources for the desired light output.

Particles, powders, compositions, formulations and coatings taught herein can be useful for altering the wavelength of at least a portion of light emitted from an excitation light source.

In certain embodiments, nanoparticles have an average particle size in a range from about 1 to about 1000 nanometers (nm), and preferably in a range from about 1 to about 100 nm. In certain embodiments, nanoparticles have an average particle size in a range from about 1 to about 20 nm. In certain embodiments, nanoparticles have an average particle size in a range from about 1 to about 10 nm.

In certain embodiments, a nanoparticle with light-emissive properties comprises a semiconductor nanocrystal. In certain embodiments, a semiconductor nanocrystal has an average particle size in a range from about 1 to about 20 nm, and preferably from about 1 to about 10 nm.

The semiconductor forming the semiconductor nanocrystals can comprise a Group IV element, a Group II-VI compound, a Group II-V compound, a Group III-VI compound, a Group III-V compound, a Group IV-VI compound, a Group I-III-VI compound, a Group II-IV-VI compound, a Group II-IV-V compound, an alloy including any of the foregoing, and/or a mixture including any of the foregoing, including ternary and quaternary mixtures or alloys. A non-limiting list of examples include ZnO, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdO, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, MgS, MgSe, GaAs, GaN, GaP, GaSe, GaSb, HgO, HgS, HgSe, HgTe, InAs, InN, InP, InSb, AlAs, AlN, AlP, AlSb, TlN, TlP, TlAs, TlSb, PbO, PbS, PbSe, PbTe, Ge, Si, an alloy including any of the foregoing, and/or a mixture including any of the foregoing, including ternary and quaternary mixtures or alloys.

Examples of the shape of semiconductor nanocrystals and other nanoparticles can include sphere, rod, disk, other shapes, or mixtures thereof.

One example of a method of manufacturing a semiconductor nanocrystal is a colloidal growth process. Colloidal growth occurs by injection an M donor and an X donor into a hot coordinating solvent. One example of a preferred method for preparing monodisperse semiconductor nanocrystals comprises pyrolysis of organometallic reagents, such as dimethyl cadmium, injected into a hot, coordinating solvent. This permits discrete nucleation and results in the controlled growth of macroscopic quantities of semiconductor nanocrystals. The injection produces a nucleus that can be grown in a controlled manner to form a semiconductor nanocrystal. The reaction mixture can be gently heated to grow and anneal the semiconductor nanocrystal. Both the average size and the size distribution of the semiconductor nanocrystals in a sample are dependent on the growth temperature. The growth temperature necessary to maintain steady growth increases with increasing average crystal size. The semiconductor nanocrystal is a member of a population of semiconductor nanocrystals. As a result of the discrete nucleation and controlled growth, the population of semiconductor nanocrystals that can be obtained has a narrow, monodisperse distribution of diameters. The monodisperse distribution of diameters can also be referred to as a size. Preferably, a monodisperse population of particles includes a population of particles wherein at least about 60% of the particles in the population fall within a specified particle size range. A population of monodisperse particles preferably deviate less than 15% rms (root-mean-square) in diameter and more preferably less than 10% rms and most preferably less than 5%.

In certain embodiments, nanoparticles can comprise semiconductor nanocrystals including a core comprising a first semiconductor material and a shell comprising a second semiconductor material, wherein the shell is disposed over at least a portion of a surface of the core. A semiconductor nanocrystal including a core and shell is also referred to as a “core/shell” semiconductor nanocrystal.

For example, the semiconductor nanocrystal can include a core having the formula MX, where M can be cadmium, zinc, magnesium, mercury, aluminum, gallium, indium, thallium, or mixtures thereof, and X can be oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, or mixtures thereof. Examples of materials suitable for use as semiconductor nanocrystal cores include, but are not limited to, ZnO, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdO, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, MgS, MgSe, GaAs, GaN, GaP, GaSe, GaSb, HgO, HgS, HgSe, HgTe, InAs, InN, InP, InSb, AlAs, AlN, AlP, AlSb, TlN, TlP, TlAs, TlSb, PbO, PbS, PbSe, PbTe, Ge, Si, an alloy including any of the foregoing, and/or a mixture including any of the foregoing, including ternary and quaternary mixtures or alloys.

The shell can be a semiconductor material having a composition that is the same as or different from the composition of the core. The shell comprises an overcoat of a semiconductor material on a surface of the core semiconductor nanocrystal can include a Group IV element, a Group II-VI compound, a Group II-V compound, a Group III-VI compound, a Group III-V compound, a Group IV-VI compound, a Group I-III-VI compound, a Group II-IV-VI compound, a Group II-IV-V compound, alloys including any of the foregoing, and/or mixtures including any of the foregoing, including ternary and quaternary mixtures or alloys. Examples include, but are not limited to, ZnO, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdO, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, MgS, MgSe, GaAs, GaN, GaP, GaSe, GaSb, HgO, HgS, HgSe, HgTe, InAs, InN, InP, InSb, AlAs, AlN, AlP, AlSb, TlN, TlP, TlAs, TlSb, PbO, PbS, PbSe, PbTe, Ge, Si, an alloy including any of the foregoing, and/or a mixture including any of the foregoing. For example, ZnS, ZnSe or CdS overcoatings can be grown on CdSe or CdTe semiconductor nanocrystals. An overcoating process is described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,322,901. By adjusting the temperature of the reaction mixture during overcoating and monitoring the absorption spectrum of the core, over coated materials having high emission quantum efficiencies and narrow size distributions can be obtained. The overcoating may comprise one or more layers. The overcoating comprises at least one semiconductor material which is the same as or different from the composition of the core. Preferably, the overcoating has a thickness from about one to about ten monolayers. An overcoating can also have a thickness greater than ten monolayers. In certain embodiments, more than one overcoating can be included on a core.

In certain embodiments, the surrounding “shell” material can have a band gap greater than the band gap of the core material. In certain other embodiments, the surrounding shell material can have a band gap less than the band gap of the core material.

In certain embodiments, the shell can be chosen so as to have an atomic spacing close to that of the “core” substrate. In certain other embodiments, the shell and core materials can have the same crystal structure.

Examples of semiconductor nanocrystal (core)shell materials include, without limitation: red (e.g., (CdSe)ZnS (core)shell), green (e.g., (CdZnSe)CdZnS (core)shell, etc.), and blue (e.g., (CdS)CdZnS (core)shell.

The narrow size distribution of the semiconductor nanocrystals allows the possibility of light emission in narrow spectral widths. Monodisperse semiconductor nanocrystals have been described in detail in Murray et al. (J. Am. Chem. Soc., 115:8706 (1993)); in the thesis of Christopher Murray, “Synthesis and Characterization of II-VI Quantum Dots and Their Assembly into 3-D Quantum Dot Superlattices”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, September, 1995; and in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/969,302 for “Highly Luminescent Color-Selective Materials”. The foregoing are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

The process of controlled growth and annealing of the semiconductor nanocrystals in the coordinating solvent that follows nucleation can also result in uniform surface derivatization and regular core structures. As the size distribution sharpens, the temperature can be raised to maintain steady growth. By adding more M donor or X donor, the growth period can be shortened. The M donor can be an inorganic compound, an organometallic compound, or elemental metal. For example, M can be cadmium, zinc, magnesium, mercury, aluminum, gallium, indium or thallium. The X donor is a compound capable of reacting with the M donor to form a material with the general formula MX. For example, the X donor can be a chalcogenide donor or a pnictide donor, such as a phosphine chalcogenide, a bis(silyl)chalcogenide, dioxygen, an ammonium salt, or a tris(silyl)pnictide. Suitable X donors include dioxygen, bis(trimethylsilyl)selenide ((TMS)₂Se), trialkyl phosphine selenides such as (tri-noctylphosphine)selenide (TOPSe) or (tri-n-butylphosphine)selenide (TBPSe), trialkyl phosphine tellurides such as (tri-n-octylphosphine)telluride (TOPTe) or hexapropylphosphorustriamide telluride (HPPTTe), bis(trimethylsilyl)telluride ((TMS)₂Te), bis(trimethylsilyl)sulfide ((TMS)₂S), a trialkyl phosphine sulfide such as (tri-noctylphosphine)sulfide (TOPS), an ammonium salt such as an ammonium halide (e.g., NH₄Cl), tris(trimethylsilyl)phosphide ((TMS)₃P), tris(trimethylsilyl)arsenide ((TMS)₃As), or tris(trimethylsilyl)antimonide ((TMS)₃Sb). In certain embodiments, the M donor and the X donor can be moieties within the same molecule.

A coordinating solvent can help control the growth of the semiconductor nanocrystal. The coordinating solvent is a compound having a donor lone pair that, for example, has a lone electron pair available to coordinate to a surface of the growing semiconductor nanocrystal. Solvent coordination can stabilize the growing semiconductor nanocrystal. Examples of coordinating solvents include alkyl phosphines, alkyl phosphine oxides, alkyl phosphonic acids, or alkyl phosphinic acids, however, other coordinating solvents, such as pyridines, furans, and amines may also be suitable for the semiconductor nanocrystal production. Additional examples of suitable coordinating solvents include pyridine, tri-n-octyl phosphine (TOP), tri-n-octyl phosphine oxide (TOPO) and trishydroxylpropylphosphine (tHPP), tributylphosphine, tri(dodecyl)phosphine, dibutyl-phosphite, tributyl phosphite, trioctadecyl phosphite, trilauryl phosphite, tris(tridecyl)phosphite, triisodecyl phosphite, bis(2-ethylhexyl)phosphate, tris(tridecyl)phosphate, hexadecylamine, oleylamine, octadecylamine, bis(2-ethylhexyl)amine, octylamine, dioctylamine, trioctylamine, dodecylamine/laurylamine, didodecylamine tridodecylamine, hexadecylamine, dioctadecylamine, trioctadecylamine, phenylphosphonic acid, hexylphosphonic acid, tetradecylphosphonic acid, octylphosphonic acid, octadecylphosphonic acid, propylenediphosphonic acid, phenylphosphonic acid, aminohexylphosphonic acid, dioctyl ether, diphenyl ether, methyl myristate, octyl octanoate, and hexyl octanoate. In certain embodiments, technical grade TOPO can be used.

In certain embodiments, semiconductor nanocrystals can alternatively be prepared with use of non-coordinating solvent(s).

Size distribution during the growth stage of the reaction can be estimated by monitoring the absorption or emission line widths of the particles. Modification of the reaction temperature in response to changes in the absorption spectrum of the particles allows the maintenance of a sharp particle size distribution during growth. Reactants can be added to the nucleation solution during crystal growth to grow larger crystals. For example, for CdSe and CdTe, by stopping growth at a particular semiconductor nanocrystal average diameter and choosing the proper composition of the semiconducting material, the emission spectra of the semiconductor nanocrystals can be tuned continuously over the wavelength range of 300 nm to 5 microns, or from 400 nm to 800 nm.

The particle size distribution of the semiconductor nanocrystals can be further refined by size selective precipitation with a poor solvent for the semiconductor nanocrystals, such as methanol/butanol as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,322,901. For example, semiconductor nanocrystals can be dispersed in a solution of 10% butanol in hexane. Methanol can be added dropwise to this stirring solution until opalescence persists. Separation of supernatant and flocculate by centrifugation produces a precipitate enriched with the largest crystallites in the sample. This procedure can be repeated until no further sharpening of the optical absorption spectrum is noted. Size-selective precipitation can be carried out in a variety of solvent/nonsolvent pairs, including pyridine/hexane and chloroform/methanol. The size-selected semiconductor nanocrystal population preferably has no more than a 15% rms deviation from mean diameter, more preferably 10% rms deviation or less, and most preferably 5% rms deviation or less.

In certain embodiments, semiconductor nanocrystals preferably have ligands attached thereto.

In certain embodiment, the ligands can be derived from the coordinating solvent used during the growth process.

In certain embodiments, the surface can be modified by repeated exposure to an excess of a competing coordinating group to form an overlayer.

For example, a dispersion of the capped semiconductor nanocrystal can be treated with a coordinating organic compound, such as pyridine, to produce crystallites which disperse readily in pyridine, methanol, and aromatics but no longer disperse in aliphatic solvents. Such a surface exchange process can be carried out with any compound capable of coordinating to or bonding with the outer surface of the semiconductor nanocrystal, including, for example, phosphines, thiols, amities and phosphates. The semiconductor nanocrystal can be exposed to short chain polymers which exhibit an affinity for the surface and which terminate in a moiety having an affinity for a liquid medium in which the semiconductor nanocrystal is suspended or dispersed. Such affinity improves the stability of the suspension and discourages flocculation of the semiconductor nanocrystal.

More specifically, the coordinating ligand can have the formula: (Y—)_(k-n)—(X)-(-L)_(n) wherein k is 2, 3 4, or 5, and n is 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 such that k-n is not less than zero; X is O, O—S, O—Se, O—N, O—P, O—As, S, S═O, SO₂, Se, Se═O, N, N═O, P, P═O, C═O As, or As═O; each of Y and L, independently, is H, OH, aryl, heteroaryl, or a straight or branched C2-18 hydrocarbon chain optionally containing at least one double bond, at least one triple bond, or at least one double bond and one triple bond. The hydrocarbon chain can be optionally substituted with one or more C1-4 alkyl, C2-4 alkenyl, C2-4 alkynyl, C1-4 alkoxy, hydroxyl, halo, amino, nitro, cyano, C3-5 cycloalkyl, 3-5 membered heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, C1-4 alkylcarbonyloxy, C1-4 alkyloxycarbonyl, C1-4 alkylcarbonyl, or formyl. The hydrocarbon chain can also be optionally interrupted by —O—, —S—, —N(Ra)—, —N(Ra)—C(O)—O—, —O—C(O)—N(Ra)—, —N(Ra)—C(O)—N(Rb)—, —O—C(O)—O—, —P(Ra)—, or —P(O)(Ra)—. Each of Ra and Rb, independently, is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkoxy, hydroxylalkyl, hydroxyl, or haloalkyl. An aryl group is a substituted or unsubstituted cyclic aromatic group. Examples include phenyl, benzyl, naphthyl, tolyl, anthracyl, nitrophenyl, or halophenyl. A heteroaryl group is an aryl group with one or more heteroatoms in the ring, for instance furyl, pyridyl, pyrrolyl, phenanthryl.

A suitable coordinating ligand can be purchased commercially or prepared by ordinary synthetic organic techniques, for example, as described in J. March, Advanced Organic Chemistry.

Other ligands are described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/641,292 for “Stabilized Semiconductor Nanocrystals”, filed 15 Aug. 2003, which issued on 9 Jan. 2007 as U.S. Pat. No. 7,160,613, which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

Other examples of ligands include benzylphosphonic acid, benzylphosphonic acid including at least one substituent group on the ring of the benzyl group, a conjugate base of such acids, and mixtures including one or more of the foregoing. In certain embodiments, a ligand comprises 4-hydroxybenzylphosphonic acid, a conjugate base of the acid, or a mixture of the foregoing. In certain embodiments, a ligand comprises 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxybenzylphosphonic acid, a conjugate base of the acid, or a mixture of the foregoing.

Additional examples of ligands that may be useful with the present invention are described in International Application No. PCT/US2008/010651, filed 12 Sep. 2008, of Breen, et al., for “Functionalized Nanoparticles And Method” and International Application No. PCT/US2009/004345, filed 28 Jul. 2009 of Breen et al., for “Nanoparticle Including Multi-Functional Ligand And Method”, each of the foregoing being hereby incorporated herein by reference.

The emission from a nanoparticle capable of emitting light (e.g., a semiconductor nanocrystal) can be a narrow Gaussian emission band that can be tuned through the complete wavelength range of the ultraviolet, visible, NIR (700 nm-1400 nm), or infra-red regions of the spectrum by varying the size of the nanoparticle, the composition of the nanoparticle, or both. For example, a semiconductor nanocrystal comprising CdSe can be tuned in the visible region; a semiconductor nanocrystal comprising InAs can be tuned in the infra-red region. The narrow size distribution of a population of nanoparticles capable of emitting light (e.g., semiconductor nanocrystals) can result in emission of light in a narrow spectral range. The population can be monodisperse preferably exhibits less than a 15% rms (root-mean-square) deviation in diameter of such nanoparticles, more preferably less than 10%, most preferably less than 5%. Spectral emissions in a narrow range of no greater than about 75 nm, preferably 60 nm, more preferably 40 nm, and most preferably 30 nm full width at half max (FWHM) for such nanoparticles that emit in the visible can be observed. IR-emitting nanoparticles can have a FWHM of no greater than 150 nm, or no greater than 100 nm. Expressed in terms of the energy of the emission, the emission can have a FWHM of no greater than 0.05 eV, or no greater than 0.03 eV. The breadth of the emission decreases as the dispersity of the light-emitting nanoparticle diameters decreases.

For example, semiconductor nanocrystals can have high emission quantum efficiencies such as greater than 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90%.

The narrow FWHM of semiconductor nanocrystals can result in saturated color emission. The broadly tunable, saturated color emission over the entire visible spectrum of a single material system is unmatched by any class of organic chromophores (see, for example, Dabbousi et al., J. Phys. Chem. 101, 9463 (1997), which is incorporated by reference in its entirety). A monodisperse population of semiconductor nanocrystals will emit light spanning a narrow range of wavelengths. A pattern including more than one size of semiconductor nanocrystal can emit light in more than one narrow range of wavelengths. The color of emitted light perceived by a viewer can be controlled by selecting appropriate combinations of semiconductor nanocrystal sizes and materials. The degeneracy of the band edge energy levels of semiconductor nanocrystals facilitates capture and radiative recombination of all possible excitons.

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) can provide information about the size, shape, and distribution of the semiconductor nanocrystal population. Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns can provide the most complete information regarding the type and quality of the crystal structure of the semiconductor nanocrystals. Estimates of size are also possible since particle diameter is inversely related, via the X-ray coherence length, to the peak width. For example, the diameter of the semiconductor nanocrystal can be measured directly by transmission electron microscopy or estimated from X-ray diffraction data using, for example, the Scherrer equation. It also can be estimated from the UV/Vis absorption spectrum.

Other materials, techniques, methods, applications, and information that may be useful with the present invention are described in, International Application No. PCT/US2007/24320, filed Nov. 21, 2007, of Clough, et al., for “Nanocrystals Including A Group IIIa Element And A Group Va Element, Method, Composition, Device And Other Products” which published as WO2008/133660; International Application No. PCT/US2007/24305, filed Nov. 21, 2007, of Breen, et al., for “Blue Light Emitting Semiconductor Nanocrystal And Compositions And Devices Including Same” which published as WO2008/063652; International Application No. PCT/US2007/24306, filed Nov. 21, 2007, of Ramprasad, for “Semiconductor Nanocrystal And Compositions And Devices Including Same” which published as WO2008/063653; International Application No. PCT/US2007/013152, filed Jun. 4, 2007, of Coe-Sullivan, et al., for “Light-Emitting Devices And Displays With Improved Performance” which published as WO2007/143197; International Application No. PCT/US2007/24750, of Coe-Sullivan, et al., filed Dec. 3, 2007 “Improved Composites And Devices Including Nanoparticles” which published as WO2008/070028; International Application No. PCT/US2007/24310, filed Nov. 21, 2007, of Kazlas, et al., for “Light-Emitting Devices And Displays With Improved Performance” which published as WO2008/063653; International Application No. PCT/US2007/003677, filed Feb. 14, 2007, of Bulovic, et al., for “Solid State Lighting Devices Including Semiconductor Nanocrystals & Methods”, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/283,609, filed 12 Sep. 2008, of Coe-Sullivan et al., for “Compositions, Optical Component, System Including an Optical Component, Devices, and Other Products”, and U.S. Patent Application No. 60/949,306, filed 12 Jul. 2007, of Linton, et al., for “Compositions, Methods For Depositing Nanomaterial, Methods For Fabricating A Device, And Methods For Fabricating An Array Of Devices, U.S. Pat. No. 7,229,690, issued 12 Jun. 2007, of Chan, et al., for “Microspheres Including Nanoparticles”, U.S. Pat. No. 7,449,237, issued 11 Nov. 2008, of Chan, et al., for “Microspheres Including Nanoparticles in the Peripheral Region”, International Application No. PCT/US2009/01372, filed 4 Mar. 2009, of John R. Linton, et al, for “Particles Including Nanoparticles, Uses Thereof, and Methods”, CIBA TINUVIN 5000 Series product brochure entitled “High value light stabilizer blends for coatings” (c-August 2009, printed in Switzerland), Ciba Tinuvin 1130 product brochure—Coating Effects Segment (Edition: 15.12.97 Basle), Ciba Tinuvin 477 DW product brochure—Ciba Specialty Chemicals—Coating Effects Segment (Edition 02:05.05, Basle—Copyright 2005 Ciba Specialty Chemicals Inc.), G. J. M. Fechine, et al, “Evaluation of poly(ethylene terephthalate) photostabilisation using FTIR spectrometry of evolved carbon dioxide”, Polymer Degradation and Stability 94 (2009) 234-239, PAN Jiangquing and CUI Song, “Study on the Photolysis Mechanism of Polyester From Succinic Acid and N-β-Hydroxyethyl 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-4 hydroxy piperidine (Tinuvin-622), Chinese Journal of Polymer Science, Vol. 6, No. 4 (1988), and O. Meszaros, et al., “Photooxidation of poly[methyl](phenyl)silylene] and effect of photostabilizers”, Polymer Degradation and Stability 91 (2006) 573-578. The disclosures of each of the foregoing listed publications and documents are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

Particles, powders, formulations, coatings, films, and compositions in accordance with various embodiments of the invention may be incorporated into a wide variety of products and end-use applications, including, but not limited to, inks, paints, coatings, optical films, optical components, flat panel displays, computer monitors, televisions, billboards, lights for interior or exterior illumination and/or signaling, heads up displays, fully transparent displays, flexible displays, laser printers, telephones, cell phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), laptop computers, digital cameras, camcorders, viewfinders, micro-displays, vehicles, a large area wall, theater or stadium screen, a sign, lamps and various solid state lighting devices.

The present invention will be further clarified by the following non-limiting example(s), which are intended to be exemplary of the present invention.

EXAMPLES Example 1

Preparation of particles including InP/ZnS Quantum Dots with Octadecylphosphonic Acid (ODPA) and Decylamine ligands in LMA/EGDA acrylic microcapsule via emulsion photopolymerization using Tween 80 as dispersant and using stabilizers.

Microcapsule Preparation: QD Concentration 21 mg/mL (inorganic) QD solution used 7 mL inorganic in QD 59.6% TGA LMA density 0.872 g/cc LMA charged 6.88 mL EGDA density 1.05 g/cc EGDA charged 1.39 mL Photosensitizer 0.28 g HALS charged 0.08 g Triazine Charged 0.04 g Elemental QD (inorganic) 0.147 g 1.77% QD with Organic ligands 0.247 g 2.98% LMA 5.999 g 72.43% EGDA 1.460 g 17.62% Benzophenone 0.310 g 3.74% Sebacate 0.080 g 0.97% Triazine 0.040 g 0.48% Total 8.28 g 100.00% % cross linker in polymer 19.57% % photoinitiator in resin 3.99% % HALS in resin 1.06% % triazene in Resin 0.53%

Materials

Deionized water is used. Lauryl methacrylate (Aldrich Chemical, 96% lot #08118DE) and ethylene glycol diacrylate (Aldrich Chemical, 98% lot #15017PD) are purified by passage through a short plug of activated Alumina in order to remove polymerization inhibitors. After passage through the column, the monomers are kept in a sealed, amber glass vial, refrigerated and used within 24 hours. Tween 80 (Aldrich Chemical, SigmaUltra lot #037KO1551), photoinitiator 4,4′-bis(N,N-diethylamino)benzophenone (DEABP), photostabilizer Bis(1-octyloxy-2,2,6,6-tatramethyl-4-piperidyl)sebacate (HALS-3) and UV absorber 2-4,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)-5-hexyloxyphenol (“Tinuvin 1577) are obtained from Aldrich and are used without further purification. All other solvents are reagent grade and used without further purification.

Colloidal InP/ZnS core/shell quantum dots including Octadecylphosphonic Acid (ODPA) and Decylamine ligands are dispersed in toluene (7 mL, 21 mg/mL on inorganic basis; 147 mg total inorganics); the quantum dots have an emission_(max)=620 nm, quantum yield=68%, absorbance=589 nm, and FWHM=56 nm.

Experimental

Quantum dot/monomer preparation. A 50 mL Schlenk flask equipped with rubber septum and magnetic stirrer is charged with lauryl acrylate (6.08 g, 6.88 mL), Ethylene glycol diacrylate (1.52 g, 1.39 mL), HALS-3 (0.08 g), Tinuvin 1577 (0.04 g). Solution is stirred for 2 hours during which time all solids are dissolved/dispersed.

InP quantum dots in toluene (7 mL, 21 mg/mL on inorganic basis; 147 mg total inorganics) are added via syringe and vacuum is applied until all of the toluene solvent is removed as indicated by system pressure dropping below 500 mtorr. DEABP photoinitiator (280 mg) is then added to the lauryl acrylate/quantum dot solution and well mixed using a magnetic stirrer.

Emulsion Formation & Polymerization.

A 250 mL jacketed beaker is equipped with a magnetic stir bar and a 450 W Hg light in a cooled quartz sleeve is suspended 4-5 inches above the beaker. A Pyrex filter sleeve surrounds the lamp.

89 mL of deionized water is charged to the beaker. To this is added Tween 80 (178 mg, 0.2% w/v) which is initially mixed for 30 minutes to dissolve and then cooled to 6° C. by setting the circulating bath temperature to a 2° C. setpoint. Once the temperature is reached, the monomer/QD solution is added subsurface via syringe creating a suspension of red colored beads. The IKA T25 rotor-stator is then immersed in the suspension and sheared at low speed (8000 rpm) until oil phase on top of reaction solution disappears and is incorporated into emulsion. Rotor stator is allowed to run for 10 minutes at low-medium speed making sure that air entrainment is minimized. After 10 minutes, the rotor-stator is shut off and the lamp is connected to power supply and quickly placed in the quartz photo well. Lamp is ignited and allowed to run for exactly 20 minutes. At the end of 30 minutes, power to the lamp is shut off. Rose colored and cloudy but no visible particles are observed.

Material is checked under a microscope, microemulsion droplets can be seen but are observed to coalesce. Emulsion heated on slide leads to clear film. No polymerization is observed to occurred

The filter sleeve is removed and suspension is again photolyzed for 30 minutes. Emulsion now looks brown and microscopic examination indicated no polymerization has occurred and the reaction is discontinued.

Example 2

Preparation of particles including InP/ZnS Quantum Dots with Octadecylphosphonic Acid (ODPA) and Decylamine ligands in LMA/EGDA acrylic microcapsule matrix via emulsion photopolymerization using Tween 80 as dispersant and using stabilizers.

Materials

Deionized water is used. Lauryl methacrylate (Aldrich Chemical, 96% lot #08118DE) and ethylene glycol diacrylate (Aldrich Chemical, 98% lot #15017PD) are purified by passage through a short plug of activated Alumina in order to remove polymerization inhibitors. After passage through the column, the monomers are kept in a sealed, amber glass vial, refrigerated and used within 24 hours. Tween 80 (Aldrich Chemical, SigmaUltra lot #037KO1551), Esacure KTO 46 photoinitator (Sartomer, lot #2008050005)), photostabilizer Bis(1-octyloxy-2,2,6,6-tatramethyl-4-piperidyl)sebacate (HALS-3) and UV absorber 2-4,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)-5-hexyloxyphenol (Tinuvin 1577) are obtained from Aldrich and are used without further purification. All other solvents are reagent grade and used without further purification.

Colloidal InP/ZnS core/shell quantum dots including Octadecylphosphonic Acid (ODPA) and Decylamine ligands are dispersed in toluene (7 mL, 21 mg/mL on inorganic basis; 147 mg total inorganics); the quantum dots have an emission_(max)=620 nm, quantum yield=68%, absorbance=589 nm, and FWHM=56 nm.

Microcapsule Preparation: QD Concentration 21 mg/mL (inorganic) QD solution used 7 mL inorganic in QD 59.6% TGA LMA density 0.872 g/cc LMA charged 4 mL EGDA density 1.05 g/cc EGDA charged 1 mL Photosensitizer 0.23 g HALS charged 0.039 g Triazine Charged 0.03 g Elemental QD (inorganic) 0.147 g 2.79% QD with Organic ligands 0.247 g 4.68% LMA 3.488 g 66.17% EGDA 1.050 g 19.92% KTO-46 0.230 g 4.36% Sebacate 0.080 g 1.52% Triazine 0.030 g 0.57% Total 5.27 g 100.00% % cross linker in polymer 23.14% % photoinitiator in resin 4.82% % HALS in resin 1.73% % triazene in Resin 0.66%

Experimental

Quantum dot/monomer preparation. A 20 mL septum vial equipped magnetic stirrer is charged with lauryl acrylate (4 mL), Ethylene glycol diacrylate (1 mL), HALS-3 (39 mg), Tinuvin 1577 (0.30 mg). Solution is stirred for 2 hours during which time all solids are dissolved/dispersed.

A 50 mL Schlenk flask equipped with a septum and stir bar is placed under nitrogen by vacuum/refilling 3×. InP quantum dots in toluene (7 mL, 21 mg/mL on inorganic basis; 147 mg total inorganics) are added via syringe followed by monomer/stabilizer solution. Vacuum is applied until all of the hexane solvent is removed as indicated by system pressure dropping below 500 mtorr. KTO-46 photoinitiator (280 mg) is then added to the lauryl acrylate/quantum dot solution and well mixed using a magnetic stirrer.

Emulsion Formation & Polymerization.

A 250 mL jacketed beaker is equipped with a magnetic stir bar and a 450 W Hg light in a cooled quartz sleeve is suspended 4-5 inches above the beaker. A Pyrex filter sleeve surrounds the lamp.

90 mL of deionized water is charged to the beaker. To this is added Tween 80 (215 mg, 0.2% w/v) which is initially mixed for 30 minutes to dissolve and then cooled to 6° C. by setting the circulating bath temperature to a 2° C. setpoint. Once the temperature is reached, the monomer/QD solution is added subsurface via syringe creating a suspension of red colored beads. The IKA T25 rotor-stator is then immersed in the suspension and sheared at low speed (8000 rpm) until oil phase on top of reaction solution disappears and is incorporated into emulsion. Rotor stator is allowed to run for 1 minute at low-medium speed making sure that air entrainment is minimized. After 1 minute, the rotor-stator is shut off and the lamp is connected to power supply and quickly placed in the quartz photo well along with a Pyrex filter sleeve. Lamp is ignited and allowed to run for exactly 15 minutes. At the end of 15 minutes, power to the lamp is shut off. Solution is rose colored and cloudy but no visible particles are observed.

Material is checked under a microscope, microemulsion droplets can be seen with no obvious coalescence. Observed through a rhodamine filter, they show strong red emission as seen in FIG. 1:

To test for polymerization, slide is placed on a 120° C. hot plate until all liquid is evaporated. Spheres persisted as seen in FIG. 2.

Recovery and Washing of Microparticles.

The reaction suspension is divided equally into two 200 mL glass centrifuge tubes and 50 mL of methanol is added to each. Tubes are mixed by inversion and centrifuged for 15 minutes at 4,000 rpm. Methanol layer is decanted and washing step is repeated with additional 1×50 mL MeOH, 2×50 mL hexanes for each tube. Hexane saturated final paste is transferred to a round bottomed flask and solvent is removed in vacuo for 5 hours. Dry solid is transferred to a sample jar for storage. Yield 95% theoretical.

Example 3

Preparation of particles including InP/ZnS Quantum Dots with Octadecylphosphonic Acid (ODPA) and Decylamine ligands in LMA/EGDA acrylic microcapsule matrix via emulsion photopolymerization using Tween 80 as dispersant.

Materials

Deionized water is used. Lauryl methacrylate (Aldrich Chemical, 96% lot #08118DE) and ethylene glycol diacrylate (Aldrich Chemical, 98% lot #15017PD) are purified by passage through a short plug of activated Alumina in order to remove polymerization inhibitors. After passage through the column, the monomers are kept in a sealed, amber glass vial, refrigerated and used within 24 hours. Esacure KTO 46 photoinitator (Sartomer, lot #2008050005) and Tween 80 (Aldrich Chemical, SigmaUltra lot #037KO1551) are used without further purification. All other solvents are reagent grade and used without further purification.

Colloidal InP/ZnS core/shell quantum dots including Octadecylphosphonic Acid (ODPA) and Decylamine ligands are dispersed in toluene (7 mL, 21 mg/mL on inorganic basis; 147 mg total inorganics); the quantum dots have an emission_(max)=620 nm, quantum yield=68%, absorbance=589 nm, and FWHM=56 nm.

Experimental

Quantum dot/monomer preparation. A 50 mL Schlenk flask equipped with rubber septum and magnetic stirrer is charged with lauryl acrylate (6.08 g, 6.88 mL) and Ethylene glycol diacrylate (1.52 g, 1.39 mL). InP quantum dots in toluene (7 mL, 21 mg/mL on inorganic basis; 147 mg total inorganics) are added via syringe and vacuum is continued until all of the toluene solvent is removed as indicated by system pressure dropping below 500 mtorr. Esacure KTO-46 photoinitiator (0.28 g) is then added to the lauryl acrylate/quantum dot solution and well mixed using a magnetic stirrer.

Emulsion Formation & Polymerization.

A 250 mL jacketed beaker is equipped with a magnetic stir bar and a 450 W Hg light in a cooled quartz sleeve is suspended 4-5 inches above the beaker.

89 mL of deionized water is charged to the beaker. To this is added Tween 80 (178 mg, 0.2% w/v) which is initially mixed for 30 minutes to dissolve and then cooled to 6° C. by setting the circulating bath temperature to a 2° C. setpoint. Once the temperature is reached, the monomer/QD solution is added subsurface via syringe creating a suspension of red colored beads. The IKA T25 rotor-stator is then immersed in the suspension and sheared at low speed (8000 rpm) until oil phase on top of reaction solution disappears and is incorporated into emulsion. Rotor stator is allowed to run for 10 minutes at low-medium speed making sure that air entrainment is minimized. After 10 minutes, the rotor-stator is shut off and the lamp is connected to power supply and quickly placed in the quartz photo well. Lamp is ignited and allowed to run for exactly 20 minutes. At the end of 20 minutes, power to the lamp is shut off. Rose colored and cloudy but no visible particles can be seen.

The reaction solution is checked under microscope and 1-10 μm particles are seen which fluoresce under rhodamine filter.

A drop of solution is placed on 100° C. microscope slide and film is allowed to form and heat for 10 minutes. Capsules agglomerate but none burst. Capsules have polymerized.

Recovery and Washing of Microparticles.

The reaction mixture is divided and transferred into two 200 mL centrifuge bottles with a small amount of deionized water. The tubes are brought up to 200 mL with methanol and shaken to mix causing a loose flocculate to form and spun at 4000 rpm for 20 minutes. The solids are at the bottom of the tube (tan in color) with a clear layer above it. The clear methanol layer is decanted and the wash procedure is repeated for total of 2×150 mL methanol, 2×100 mL hexanes. The solids are finally transferred to a round bottom flask with a small amount of hexanes and placed on a vacuum line for 4 hours to remove all residual solvent. Tan powder fluoresces with a string red emission when illuminated with 365 nm light. The dried, tan solid is transferred to a jar for storage.

Yield 6.97 g dried solid (87%) based on theoretical 7.99 g

Example 4

Preparation of particles including InP/ZnS Quantum Dots with Octadecylphosphonic Acid (ODPA) and Decylamine ligands in LMA/EGDA acrylic microcapsule matrix via emulsion photopolymerization using Tween 80 as dispersant.

Materials

Deionized water is used. Lauryl methacrylate (Aldrich Chemical, 96% lot #08118DE) and ethylene glycol diacrylate (Aldrich Chemical, 98% lot #15017PD) are purified by passage through a short plug of activated alumina in order to remove polymerization inhibitors. After passage through the column, the monomers are kept in a sealed, amber glass vial, refrigerated and used within 24 hours. Tween 80 (Aldrich Chemical, SigmaUltra lot #037KO1551), Esacure KTO 46 photoinitator (Sartomer, lot #8908062588)), photostabilizer Bis(1-octyloxy-2,2,6,6-tatramethyl-4-piperidyl)sebacate (HALS-3) and UV absorber 2-4,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)-5-hexyloxyphenol (Tinuvin 1577) are obtained from Aldrich and used without further purification. All other solvents are reagent grade and used without further purification.

Colloidal InP/ZnS core/shell quantum dots including Octadecylphosphonie Acid (ODPA) (PCI, Lot #807001N09) and Decylamine ligands are dispersed in toluene (22 mg/mL), and have emission_(max)=621 nm, quantum yield=60%, absorbance=584 nm, FWHM=56 nm, inorganics 67%.

Experimental

Quantum dot/monomer preparation. A 50 mL septum vial equipped magnetic stirrer is charged with lauryl acrylate, ethylene glycol diacrylate, and octadecylphosphonic acid (ODPA). The mixture is stirred overnight during which time all solids are dissolved/dispersed. (ODPA showed some cloudiness). Care is taken not to expose solution to light.

A 50 mL Schlenk flask equipped with a septum and stir bar is placed under nitrogen by vacuum/refilling 3× with inert gas. InP quantum dots in hexanes are added via syringe followed by slow addition of the monomer/stabilizer solution over about 3 minutes. Vacuum is applied until all of the hexane solvent is removed as indicated by system pressure dropping below 200 mtorr. KTO-46 photoinitiator is then added to the lauryl acrylate/quantum dot solution and well mixed using a magnetic stirrer for 3 minutes.

Emulsion Formation & Polymerization.

A 250 mL jacketed beaker is equipped with a magnetic stir bar and a 450 W Hg light in a cooled quartz sleeve is suspended 4-5 inches above the beaker. A Pyrex filter sleeve surrounds the lamp.

190 mL of deionized water is charged to the beaker. To this is added Tween 80 previously dissolved in 10 mL water overnight. The solution is then cooled to 6° C. by setting the circulating bath temperature to a 17° C. setpoint. Once the temperature is reached, the monomer/QD solution is added subsurface via syringe creating a suspension of red colored beads. The IKA T25 rotor-stator is then immersed in the suspension and sheared at low speed (8000 rpm) until oil phase on top of reaction solution disappears and is incorporated into emulsion. Rotor stator is allowed to run for 2 minutes at low-medium speed making sure that air entrainment is minimized. After 1 minute, the rotor-stator is shut off and the lamp is connected to power supply and quickly placed in the quartz photo well along with a Pyrex filter sleeve. Lamp is ignited and allowed to run for exactly 15 minutes. At the end of 15 minutes, power to the lamp is shut off. Solution is rose colored and cloudy but no visible particles can be seen.

Material is checked under a microscope, microemulsion droplets can be seen with no obvious coalescence. To test for polymerization, the slide is placed on a 120° C. hot plate until all liquid is evaporated. Persistent spheres is taken as evidence of polymerization.

Recovery and Washing of Microparticles.

The reaction suspension (200 mL) is transferred into a 900 mL polyethylene centrifuge container using 250 mL of 2-propanol. This mixture is centrifuged for 15 minutes at 4,000 rpm using an acceleration/brake setting of 5/5. The 2-propanol/water centrate is decanted and the pink pellet is resuspended and transferred into an Erlenmeyer flask equipped with a magnetic stir bar using 100 mL of clean 2-propanol. This suspension is stirred for 30 minutes to wash the capsules. These are then transferred to a glass centrifuge tube using a minimum volume of 2-propanol and centrifuged under the same conditions. The 2-propanol layer is then discarded.

In a similar fashion, the pink pellet is resuspended and washed with hexane (2×100 mL) and xylene (2×100 mL). After the final centrate removal, the pellet is resuspended in the appropriate vehicle (see, e.g., below) and stored on a septum topped amber vial.

Vehicle Preparation.

The vehicle (TriCom Coatings MIL Spec PRF-81352B Type I) is place in a septum topped vial equipped with a magnetic stir bar. Solid Tinuvin 1577 and/or liquid HALS-3 stabilizers are added and the solution is allowed to stir overnight for complete dissolution/dispersion.

As shown in the examples, inclusion of stabilizers in a formulation including unencapsulated quantum dots has a detrimental affect on quantum dots. Advantageously, benefits from including stabilizers in a formulation including quantum dots can be obtained wherein the quantum dots are encapsulated in particles as taught herein.

The external photoluminescent (PL) quantum efficiency is generally measured using the method developed by Mello et al. (See Mello et al., Advanced Materials 9(3):230 (1997), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety). The method uses a collimated 450 nm LED source, an integrating sphere and a spectrometer. Three measurements are taken. First, the LED directly illuminates the integrating sphere giving the spectrum labeled L1 below. Next, the PL sample is placed into the integrating sphere so that only diffuse LED light illuminates the sample giving the (L2+P2) spectrum below. Finally, the PL sample is placed into the integrating sphere so that the LED directly illuminates the sample (just off normal incidence) giving the (L3+P3) spectrum below. (See FIG. 3). After collecting the data, each spectral contribution (L's and P's) is computed. L1, L2 and L3 correspond to the sums of the LED spectra for each measurement and P2 and P3 are the sums associated with the PL spectra for 2nd and 3rd measurements. The following equation then gives the external PL quantum efficiency: EQE=[(P3·L2)minus(P2·L3)]/(L1·(L2 minus L3))

As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” include plural unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to an emissive material includes reference to one or more of such materials.

Applicant specifically incorporates the entire contents of all cited references in this disclosure by reference in their entirety. Further, when an amount, concentration, or other value or parameter is given as either a range, preferred range, or a list of upper preferable values and lower preferable values, this is to be understood as specifically disclosing all ranges formed from any pair of any upper range limit or preferred value and any lower range limit or preferred value, regardless of whether ranges are separately disclosed. Where a range of numerical values is recited herein, unless otherwise stated, the range is intended to include the endpoints thereof, and all integers and fractions within the range. It is not intended that the scope of the invention be limited to the specific values recited when defining a range.

Other embodiments of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the present specification and practice of the present invention disclosed herein. It is intended that the present specification and examples be considered as exemplary only with a true scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by the following claims and equivalents thereof. 

The invention claimed is:
 1. A formulation comprising a medium, two or more stabilizers, and one or more particles comprising nanoparticles included within a host material, wherein at least a portion of the nanoparticles include a core comprising a first semiconductor material and a shell disposed over at least a portion of an outer surface of the core, the shell comprising a second semiconductor material, and wherein the two or more stabilizers include a HALS stabilizer and a UVA stabilizer.
 2. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the particle has at least one dimension in the range from about 0.01 μm to about 100 μm.
 3. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the particle includes at least about 0.001 weight percent nanoparticles.
 4. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the particle includes from about 0.001 to about 25 weight percent nanoparticles.
 5. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the host material comprises a polymer.
 6. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the host material comprises a wax.
 7. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein at least a portion of the nanoparticles have light-emissive properties and wherein the host material is optically transparent.
 8. A formulation in accordance with claim 7 wherein the host material is optically transparent to excitation light used to optically excite the nanoparticles.
 9. A formulation in accordance with claim 7 wherein the host material is optically transparent to light emitted from the light-emissive nanoparticles.
 10. A formulation in accordance with claim 7 wherein the host material is optically transparent to light emitted from the light-emissive nanoparticles.
 11. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein at least a portion of the nanoparticles includes one or more ligands attached to an outer surface thereof.
 12. A powder comprising a formulation in accordance with claim 1 in a particulate form.
 13. A powder in accordance with claim 12 wherein two or more populations of particles are included in the powder and wherein at least one population of particles includes nanoparticles that emit light at a wavelength that is distinct from that emitted by nanoparticles included in another population of particles.
 14. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the medium comprises a liquid medium.
 15. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the particles are present in the formulation in an amount of at least about 0.1 weight percent based on the weight of the medium.
 16. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the particles are present in the formulation in an amount of at least about 0.1 to about 75 weight percent based on the weight of the medium.
 17. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the particles are present in the formulation in an amount of at least about 0.1 to about 25 weight percent based on the weight of the medium.
 18. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the particles are present in the formulation in an amount of at least about 0.1 to about 10 weight percent based on the weight of the medium.
 19. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the particles are present in the formulation in an amount of at least about 0.1 to about 5 weight percent based on the weight of the medium.
 20. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the medium comprises monomers, polymers, resins, and/or other film forming compositions.
 21. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the formulation further includes one or more additives.
 22. A formulation in accordance with claim 21 wherein the one or more additives comprise a colorant, a scatterer, a binder, a surfactant, and/or a mixture of one or more thereof.
 23. A composition comprising a powder in accordance with claim
 12. 24. A composition in accordance with claim 23 wherein the powder is dispersed in a second host material.
 25. A composition in accordance with claim 24 wherein the second host material comprises a monomer.
 26. A composition in accordance with claim 24 wherein the second host material comprises a resin.
 27. A composition in accordance with claim 24 wherein the second host material comprises a polymer.
 28. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the host material comprises polyacrylate.
 29. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the host material comprises an inorganic material.
 30. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the nanoparticles have light-emissive properties.
 31. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the formulation includes the HALS stabilizer in an amount from about 0.1 to about 5 weight percent.
 32. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the formulation includes the UVA stabilizer in an amount from about 0.1 to about 5 weight percent.
 33. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the formulation includes the HALS stabilizer in an amount from about 0.1 to about 2 weight percent.
 34. A formulation in accordance with claim 1 wherein the formulation includes the UVA stabilizer in an amount from about 0.1 to about 2 weight percent.
 35. A formulation in accordance with claim 31 wherein the formulation includes the UVA stabilizer in an amount from about 0.1 to about 5 weight percent.
 36. A formulation in accordance with claim 33 wherein the formulation includes the UVA stabilizer in an amount from about 0.1 to about 2 weight percent. 